05 l1 ethereum

05 — Ethereum (L1)

A "world computer". Plataforma de smart contracts mais usada. Atualmente settlement + DA layer para ecosistema massivo de L2s.

1. Especificações fundamentais

Spec Valor
Mainnet 20150730 (Frontier release)
Whitepaper 2013-12 (Vitalik Buterin)
Yellow Paper 2014 (Gavin Wood) — spec formal
Cofounders Buterin, Wood, Lubin, Hoskinson, Di Iorio, Alisie, Chetrit, Wilcke (foram cedo)
Consensus PoS Casper FFG + LMDGHOST (postMerge set/2022)
Slot 12 segundos
Epoch 32 slots (~6.4 min)
Finality 2 epochs (~12.8 min)
Block time 12 segundos
Block gas limit 30M (target), 60M (max via EIP-1559)
Supply No hard cap; deflacionário após Merge + EIP-1559 burn
Smallest unit 1 wei = 10⁻¹⁸ ETH
Address 20 bytes (Keccak-256 of pubkey, last 20 bytes)
Tx model Account-based
VM Ethereum Virtual Machine (EVM) — Turing-complete
Languages Solidity, Vyper, Huff, Yul, Fe
Signature secp256k1 ECDSA (legacy); BLS12-381 (consensus)
Hashes Keccak256 (não SHA3-256, padding diferente)
Encoding RLP (Recursive Length Prefix)

2. EVM (Ethereum Virtual Machine)

Stackbased virtual machine. 256bit words.

Componentes

  • *tack* 1024 items, 256-bit cada.
  • *emory* byte-addressable, expandable (gas grows quadratic).
  • *torage* persistent keyvalue, 256bit key → 256-bit value. Most expensive.
  • *alldata* input read-only.
  • *ode* contract bytecode.
  • *rogram counter* posição em bytecode.

Opcodes

~140 opcodes. Categorias:

Categoria Exemplos Gas
*tack* PUSH132, POP, DUP116, SWAP1-16 3
*rithmetic* ADD, MUL, SUB, DIV, MOD, EXP 3-10
*omparison* LT, GT, EQ, ISZERO 3
*itwise* AND, OR, XOR, NOT, SHL, SHR 3
*ash* KECCAK256 30 + 6/word
*nvironment* ADDRESS, BALANCE, CALLER, CALLVALUE, GASPRICE 2-700
*lock* BLOCKHASH, COINBASE, TIMESTAMP, NUMBER, DIFFICULTY, GASLIMIT, CHAINID 2-20
*emory* MLOAD, MSTORE, MSTORE8, MSIZE 3+
*torage* SLOAD (2100100), SSTORE (200005000/2900) very high
*ontrol flow* JUMP, JUMPI, JUMPDEST, PC, GAS, STOP, RETURN, REVERT, INVALID 1-10
*alls* CALL, DELEGATECALL, STATICCALL, CALLCODE (deprecated), CREATE, CREATE2 700-32000
*ogs* LOG0-LOG4 375 + 8/byte
*recompiles* 0x01-0x09: ecrecover, sha256, ripemd160, identity, modexp, ecadd, ecmul, ec_pairing, blake2f varies

Gas

Cada operação custa gas. Tx envia gasLimit + gasPrice (legacy) ou maxFeePerGas + maxPriorityFeePerGas (EIP-1559).

tx_cost = gas_used × gas_price

gas_used ≤ gas_limit (rest is refund). Outofgas → revert (mas gas consumed).

Account types

  • *OA (Externally Owned Account)* controlled by private key. Pays gas.
  • *ontract Account* controlled by code. Has storage, code, balance. No private key.

Both have 20-byte address.

3. Hard forks históricos

Hard fork Data Mudanças
Frontier 20150730 Genesis
Homestead 20160314 First production release
*AO Fork* 20160720 Revert DAO hack; ETC split
Tangerine Whistle 20161018 Anti-DoS gas reprice
Spurious Dragon 20161122 More DoS fixes; state clearing
Byzantium 20171016 Difficulty bomb delay; new opcodes (REVERT, RETURNDATA)
Constantinople 20190228 Bitwise shifting opcodes; CREATE2
Istanbul 20191208 Gas reprice; LOGICNOTREPRICED ChainID
Muir Glacier 20200102 Difficulty bomb delay
Berlin 20210415 EIP2929 gas; access lists (EIP2930); typed txs (EIP-2718)
*ondon* 20210805 *IP-1559*fee market; difficulty bomb delay
Altair (Beacon) 20211027 Sync committee; light client support
Arrow Glacier 20211209 Difficulty bomb delay
Gray Glacier 20220630 Difficulty bomb delay
*he Merge* 20220915 *oW → PoS*transition
Shapella (Shanghai+Capella) 20230412 Staking withdrawals
*encun (Cancun+Deneb)* 20240313 *IP-4844 blobs* transient storage; KZG point eval
*ectra (Prague+Electra)* 2026-03 (planejada) EIP7702 (EOA→smart account); EIP7251 (max balance 2048 ETH); BLS12-381 precompiles

4. EIPs (Ethereum Improvement Proposals)

Categorias: Core, Networking, Interface, ERC (Application standards).

EIPs Core notáveis

EIP Conteúdo
*IP-1* EIP process itself
*IP-20* ERC-20 fungible token standard
*IP-55* Mixed-case checksum address
*IP-155* Replay attack protection (chain ID)
*IP-721* NFT standard (ERC-721)
*IP-1155* Multitoken standard (ERC1155)
*IP-1271* Smart contract signature validation
*IP-1559* Fee market (base fee + tip; burn)
*IP-2535* Diamond proxy (multi-facet)
*IP-2612* Permit (gasless approval)
*IP-2718* Typed transaction envelope
*IP-2929* Access lists / gas cost increase for storage
*IP-2930* Optional access lists
*IP-3074* AUTH and AUTHCALL (sponsored txs) — superseded por 7702
*IP-3198* BASEFEE opcode
*IP-3529* Reduce refunds
*IP-3675* Upgrade consensus to PoS (Merge)
*IP-3855* PUSH0 opcode
*IP-4337* Account Abstraction (smart wallets)
*IP-4399* DIFFICULTY → PREVRANDAO (PoS)
*IP-4626* Tokenized vault standard
*IP-4788* Beacon block root in EVM
*IP-4844* Proto-danksharding (blob txs)
*IP-5805* Voting checkpointing
*IP-6492* Universal sig validation for non-deployed wallets
*IP-6780* SELFDESTRUCT semantic change
*IP-7002* Trigger withdrawals from EL
*IP-7251* Max effective balance increase 32 → 2048 ETH
*IP-7549* Move committee index outside attestation
*IP-7600* Hardfork meta — Pectra
*IP-7702* Set EOA code (smart accounts em EOAs)
*IP-7742* Uncouple blob count between CL/EL
*IP-7805* FOCIL (Fork-Choice enforced Inclusion Lists)

ERCs aplicação (alguns dos mais relevantes)

ERC Standard
ERC-20 Fungible token
ERC-721 NFT
ERC-777 Advanced token (hooks)
ERC-1155 Multitoken (semifungible)
ERC-1271 Contract signature
ERC-1400 Security tokens
ERC-2981 NFT royalties
ERC-3525 Semi-fungible tokens
ERC-4337 Account Abstraction
ERC-4626 Vault
ERC-5192 Soulbound tokens (non-transferable)
ERC-6551 Token-bound accounts (NFTs as wallets)
ERC-7521 Generalized signed message intent

5. Account Abstraction (ERC-4337)

*oav Weiss, Sam Wilson, Vitalik 2021–2023* Mainnet mar/2023.

Mecânica

  • *serOperation* object describing intended action (user signed).
  • *ntryPoint contract* validates + executes UserOps.
  • *undler* like miner, but for UserOps; bundles + submits to chain.
  • *aymaster* optional sponsor of gas (USDC payment, gas station, etc.).
  • *mart wallet* any contract that implements validateUserOp().

Features unlocked

  • *ultisig*natural.
  • *ocial recovery*(Argent, Safe).
  • *pend limits*built-in.
  • *atch txs*(1 sig, many actions).
  • *ustom signatures* passkeys (WebAuthn), threshold, post-quantum.
  • *asless*(sponsor pays).
  • *ession keys*(Web3 games).
  • *ubscription*payments.

EIP-7702 (Pectra 2026)

Allow EOA to have code attached temporarily. EOA → smart-account hybrid sem deploy contrato. Simplifies UX massively.

Adoção

  • *rgent* *afe (Gnosis)* *oinbase Smart Wallet* *iconomy* *tackup*
  • Pimlico, Alchemy bundlers.
  • Pectra (mar/2026) deve acelerar adoção massiva.

6. Consensus layer (Beacon Chain)

Validators

  • 32 ETH stake (até Pectra; depois flexible até 2048 ETH).
  • 1M validators ativos (32M ETH staked).
  • Eligibility: deposit + 64-256 epoch entry queue.

Slot / epoch

  • 12s slot, 32 slots/epoch (~6.4 min).
  • Validator chosen via RANDAO per slot to propose block.
  • Random subset (committee) attests per slot.

Casper FFG + LMD-GHOST

  • *MD-GHOST*(Latest Message Driven, Greedy Heaviest Observed SubTree): fork choice — escolhe chain com mais weighted attestations.
  • *asper FFG*(Friendly Finality Gadget): every 2 epochs, 2/3+ validators justify → finalize. Justified parent + child = finalized.

Slashing

  • *ouble signing*(propose ou attest 2 blocos no mesmo slot).
  • *urround voting* attestation que envelopa outra.

Penalties: 1 ETH base + correlation penalty (mais validators slashed simultâneo = maior penalty per).

Withdrawals (Shapella, 2023)

  • *artial withdrawal* balance > 32 ETH excess auto-withdrawn.
  • *ull withdrawal* voluntarily exit (waiting queue).
  • Address bound to validator (no re-routing).

Liquid staking

  • *ido* ~30% do total ETH staked. stETH liquid token. Decentralization concern.
  • *ocket Pool* decentralized; rETH; 8/16 ETH minipools.
  • *oinbase, Binance* custodial liquid staking.
  • *rax, Stader, Stakewise*

7. EIP-1559 (London, 2021)

Fee market reform:

  • *ase fee* algorithmically determined per block; *urned*
  • *riority fee (tip)* paid to validator.
  • Block target: 15M gas (half of 30M max).
  • If block > target, base fee ↑ 12.5%; if < target, ↓ 12.5%.

*utcomes*

  • Predictable fees.
  • ETH *eflationary*in high-usage periods (burn > issuance).
  • PreMerge: burn ~80 ETH/day; postMerge issuance só ~1700 ETH/day vs 13000 pre.

8. EIP4844 — ProtoDanksharding (Dencun, mar/2024)

*lob transactions*

  • New tx type (0x03).
  • Carry blobs (each 128 KB).
  • Max 6 blobs per block.
  • *eparate fee market*(blobbasefee).
  • Blobs stored ~18 dias (4096 epochs); not in EVM state (cheap).
  • KZG commitment scheme (KateZaveruchaGoldberg) — cryptographic proof of inclusion.

*mpact* L2 fees dropped ~10×. Optimistic + zk rollups posting calldata as blobs.

*ull Danksharding*(future): 64 blobs per block, sampling DA committee.

9. MEV

Maximal Extractable Value — profit from reordering, including, excluding txs.

Tipos

  • *rbitrage* cross-DEX price differences.
  • *iquidations* catch undercollateralized positions.
  • *andwich attacks* frontrun + backrun vulnerable txs (Uniswap swaps).
  • *IT (JustInTime) liquidity* add LP just for one tx, remove.
  • *ong-tail* NFT mints, oracle manipulation, etc.

Flashbots + mev-boost

*lashbots*(Phil Daian et al. 2020) — research collective.

*EVBoost*(postMerge): separa proposer de builder.

  1. Validators (proposers) run mev-boost.
  2. *uilders*construct optimal blocks (run searchers' bundles + own MEV strategies).
  3. *elays*intermediate (Flashbots, Bloxroute, Eden, etc.).
  4. Validator picks highest-paying header (via relay).

~90% blocks Ethereum via mev-boost.

Concentration concerns

Top builders (Beaverbuild, rsyncbuilder, Titan) dominam. Censorship — some relays comply OFAC (postTornado Cash), filtering txs. Censored share ~50% pós2022; drops to ~25% via noncensoring relays growth.

Inclusion lists (EIP-7805 FOCIL)

Proposer can force inclusion of txs in next block. Anti-censorship.

MEV mitigation projects

  • *owSwap* batch auctions (no per-tx ordering exposure).
  • *EV Share*(Flashbots): partial reveal — searcher pays user for hint.
  • *rink, Anoma* intentbased, MEVaware.
  • *EV Blocker* RPC that routes via private mempool.

10. Stats (mai/2026 aprox)

  • Marketcap: ~US$ 600B.
  • Daily txs: ~1.5M (mainnet) + 50M (combined L2s).
  • TPS: ~15 sustained mainnet; effective com L2 ~1500.
  • Validators: ~1M.
  • Staked ETH: ~30%.
  • ETH supply: ~120M.
  • Burn rate cumulative: ~5M ETH burned since EIP-1559.

11. Roadmap

Vitalik's roadmap atualizado (2022, 2023, 2024):

Merge ✅ (set/2022)

PoW → PoS.

Surge

Rollupcentric scaling. Status: EIP4844 ✅; danksharding pending.

Scourge

MEV mitigation. PBS in-protocol, inclusion lists. Status: research → Pectra.

Verge

*erkle trees* replace MPT (Merkle Patricia Tree) for state. Smaller proofs (~200 bytes vs ~20 KB). Enables stateless clients. *ending*— possible 2026-2027 fork.

Purge

*istory expiry* drop history > 1 ano (EIP4444). *tate expiry* prune inactive accounts. *rehistory removal* pre-Merge state simplification.

Splurge

Miscelânea: account abstraction completion, EVM improvements (EOF — Ethereum Object Format), endgame.

12. Clients (multi-client diversity)

Execution Layer (EL)

Client Lang Share aprox
*eth*(Go Ethereum) Go ~55%
*ethermind* C# ~25%
*esu*(Hyperledger) Java ~10%
*rigon* Go ~7%
*eth*(Paradigm) Rust ~3% (growing)

Consensus Layer (CL)

Client Lang Share aprox
*rysm* Go ~35%
*ighthouse* Rust ~30%
*eku* Java ~20%
*imbus* Nim ~10%
*odestar* TS ~5%

*iversity matters* single-client > 1/3 → bug = correlated slashing risk. Pósnotórios incidentes 2023 com Prysm bug afetando finality.

13. Ecossistema desenvolvedor

Languages

  • *olidity*(default; C++-like syntax; ConsenSys + community).
  • *yper*(Pythonlike; securityfocused; menos features).
  • *ul*(intermediate language; closer to opcodes).
  • *uff*(assemblylike, ultraoptimization).
  • *e*(Rust-inspired, experimental).

Frameworks

  • *oundry*(Paradigm; Rust toolkit + Solidity-native test; dominante 2026).
  • *ardhat*(Nomic; JS-based; popular legacy).
  • *rownie*(Python; declining).
  • *ruffle*(legacy; sunset 2023).

Libraries

  • *penZeppelin Contracts* standard secure implementations.
  • *olmate / Solady*(Vectorized): optimized.
  • *RBMath* fixed-point math.
  • *ulticall, Permit2, ERC-4337 reference*

Auditoria

OpenZeppelin, Trail of Bits, ConsenSys Diligence, Cantina (formerly Spearbit), Code4rena (crowdsourced), Sherlock, Zellic, Halborn.

Indexing

The Graph (decentralized), Goldsky, Subsquid, Alchemy.

14. Ethereum Classic (ETC)

Fork resultante do DAO bailout reversion (jul/2016). Mantém immutability principle.

  • Marketcap: US$ 5B (1% Ethereum).
  • PoW Ethash + Etchash. 51% attack survivors em 2020.
  • Adoção marginal; ideological holdout.

15. Referência cruzada

  • Cripto primitives: ../cryptography/05-assimetrica.md (secp256k1, BLS12381), `06hashemac.md` (Keccak).
  • L2 scaling: 07-l2-scaling.md.
  • Smart contracts deep: 08-smart-contracts.md.
  • DeFi built on Ethereum: 09-defi.md.
  • DAO hack, Parity, Ronin: 14-incidentes.md.
  • Tokenomics ETH: 12-tokenomics.md.

Source: ../home/koder/dev/koder/meta/docs/blockchain/compendium/05-l1-ethereum.md